Series and Parallel Circuits

jumblecircuit

All hams should have at least a limited understanding of basic circuits, and this means being able to differentiate between series and parallel components.

Besides numerous license exam questions (dozens below in green boxes; knowing helps you pass the exams), some technical discussions in ham radio will throw the terms around so let’s explore the matter here.  In addition to our own presentation, some excellent web references are given at the end for further (and often more interesting) information.

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Before jumping into circuits, let’s discuss series and parallel connections.  Visualizing this will help us understand series and parallel circuits.


As the name suggests, series connections are lined up end-to-end.

series res

We’re demonstrating with resistors but the principle applies to any two-terminal component: capacitors,  inductors, diodes, cells/batteries, and light bulbs can all be wired in series with two or more of each (or a mix of different parts).  Lining them up terminal to terminal makes a series connection.

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Schematically, 3 parts in series looks like this:

Series schem

From this simple schematic we intuitively see that the current flowing through a series string has to be the same though the chain; there is nowhere else for electrons to flow (current).

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Equal current is one way of defining a series circuit.

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Also as the term suggests, parallel connections are side-by-side.

parallel res

Again, demonstrating with resistors and again, the principle applies to any two terminal component.  Arranging components across each other makes a parallel connection.

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Schematically, 3 parts in parallel looks like this:

Parallel schem

From this simple schematic we intuitively see that the voltage across parallel components must be the same.

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Equal voltage is one way of defining a parallel circuit.

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We just learned that current is the same through components in series, and voltage is the same across components in parallel.  What about  the voltage across series components, and current through parallel components? Continue reading

LEDs

LED Animated GIFThe light emitting diode (LED) comes in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and colors, and is something every ham should be familiar with.  There are a number of exam questions related to LEDs.

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LEDs are more common than you may realize.  Not only used on ham radio equipment, they are typically found on most electronic gadgets, primarily as indicator lights, most often as power or status indicators.

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Developed in the early 1960s, visible LEDs became practical replacements for miniature incandescent lamps in the 1980s.  Their main advantage is in efficiency (wasting little power), but they also last many years and illuminate instantly, all compared to incandescent light bulbs.

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The above question phased out of the General class exam pool in 2019 but it speaks to the benefits of LEDs over other technology.  This example from the Tech license exam pool shows an LED being used in a traditional power supply circuit as a power indicator:

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Useful as more than just on/off indicators, LEDs, when grouped, really open up interesting applications.  When formed as bars in a figure 8 arrangement, the classic seven segment display is created:

seven seg display

This revolutionized electronics to display numbers quickly and inexpensively and were an early use of the technology starting in the 1970s.

Also, when different color LEDs are bunched together their combined light can form a different color, often to achieve white.  RGBThis is the principle of LED back lighting for flat panel displays and for the recent adoption for home and general lighting (replacing light bulbs).

LED Bulb White LEDs (or a blend of other colors to make white) weren’t practical until the mid-1990s, and it took years to become economical.  The widespread use of LEDs for display back lighting and general lighting is now less than 15 years old.

For those interested in the technology, we’ll dive into some of the details of LEDs now.  As the name implies, an LED is a form of diode, the simplest possible semiconductor device formed by Continue reading

What You Need to Know About Electrolytic Capacitors

Capacitors are a fundamental electronic component and their property of capacitance in Farads (F) are a core part of radio circuitry.

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The basic capacitor is a pair of metal plates separated by some form of dielectric insulation.

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Electrolytic capacitors are special because they have a lot of capacitance—hundreds or thousands of microfarads (µF)—in a relatively small package.

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Electrolytic Cap
Electrolytic capacitor assortment

Most big electrolytic caps are in the radial package where both leads are on one side. The axial package with one lead on each end of the cylinder are sometimes used.  See axial vs radial.

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors provide the highest values while remaining relatively inexpensive so are commonly encountered in radio and electronics.   This is possible because of wet chemistry; specifically, an electrolyte solution as part of the dielectric layer between metal plates.  Aluminum foil is the primary conductive surface and the electrolyte is part of the separating insulator.

Al-e-cap-construction.jpg

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are frequently used in power supply circuits such as shown below, and are found in most every type of electronics:

Figure T-2

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OK, so this is wet chemistry but a dry topic. Why are we boring you with all this?

There is a practical point here for those of you who are handy or brave enough to tackle your own electronics repair; hams tend to be a DIY group.  Be advised that many functional problems in all sorts of electronics—not just radios—can be attributed to failed aluminum electrolytic capacitors.  We hope to encourage you to fix an expensive piece of equipment, not just toss it or pay someone to repair it for you.

Usually an easy fix with just two component leads to un-solder and then re-soldering the replacement. Diagnosis Continue reading